Notes+on+Manifest+Destiny

The Spirit of Young America

 * Young America: Politicians, writers, entrepreneurs
 * Ralph Waldo Emerson: told an audience of merchants and manufacturers in 1844 that the nation was entering a new era of commercial development, technological progress, and territorial expansion.
 * Young American ideal: the idea of a young country led by young men into new paths of prosperity and greatness- appealed to many people and found support across political party lines.

Movement to the Far West

 * In the 1830s and 1840s, the westward movement of population left the valley of the Mississippi behind and penetrated the Far West all the way to the Pacific.
 * Pioneers helped set the stage for the annexations and international crises of the 1840s.
 * Some went for material gain, adventure, and a significant minority sought freedom from religious persecution

Borderlands of 1830s

 * Conflicts over the border between the US and the British called for diplomatic or military action to wrest the northern half of the continent from the British.
 * Same incidents with US and Mexico
 * Since the birth of the republic, there had been a major dispute over the boundary between Maine and the Canadian province of New Brunswick.
 * 1839- fighting broke out between Canadian lumberjacks and the Maine militia.
 * Poisoned Anglo-American relations until 1842, when Secretary of State Daniel Webster concluded an agreement with the British government, represented by Lord Ashburton.
 * Webster-Ashburton Treaty: gave over half of the disputed territory to the US and established a definite northeastern boundary with Canada.
 * Same time - US and Britain laid claim to Oregon.
 * In 1818, the two nations agreed to join occupation for ten years, an agreement that was renewed indefinitely in 1827.
 * Meanwhile, the Americans had strengthened their claim by acquiring Spain’s rights to the Pacific northwest in the Adams-Onis Treaty.
 * The Oregon Country was scarcely populated before 1840
 * In 1820, about 40,000 people of Spanish descent populated this province focusing mainly in sheep raising and mining.
 * In 1821, Spain granted independence to Mexico - Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, and much of Colorado.
 * Spain’s mercantilist policies had closed the region to outside traders, but the Republic of Mexico opted for a more open trade policy.
 * Mexico in 1821, informed its northern neighbors of the changed laws encouraging trade.
 * Succeeded in stimulating commercial prosperity but also whetted expansionist appetites on the US side of the border
 * Spanish missionaries and soldiers had taken control of California in the late eighteenth century.
 * The stress and strains of forced labor and exposure to European diseases had taken an enormous toll.
 * 1833- Mexican Congress’s Secularization Act - emancipated the Indians from church control and opened the mission lands to settlement.
 * Mexican citizens were given immense tracts of mission land when Indians, landless.
 * Rancheros = a new class of large landowners, replaced padres

The Texas Revolution

 * Early 1820s, Mexican officials encouraged settlers from US to settle in Texas.
 * Mexico granted Stephen F. Austin, and some 15 other Anglo-Americans, empresarios, a huge piece of land hoping that he would attract colonists.
 * Within a year, the population increased a lot.
 * Offer of fertile and inexpensive land kept on attracting many more American immigrants.
 * Friction then developed between the Mexican government and the Anglo-American colonists over slavery and the authority of the Catholic Church.
 * Most importantly, Americans didn’t want to become Mexicans.
 * Law: All ppl living in Texas had to become Mexican citizens and adopt the Roman Catholic faith.
 * Slavery:
 * Mexico freed all slaves under its jurisdiction
 * Slave holders in Texas were given a special exemption that allowed them to emancipate their slaves and then force them to sign lifelong contracts as indentured servants, although a lot of them refused to do so.
 * When the government found out that lots of Americans were not following the law, it prohibited further American immigration and importation of slaves to Texas.
 * Lots of riots and protests continued.
 * 1833 - Austin went to Mexico City to present the Texans’ grievances and seek concessions from the central government.
 * Succeeded in having the ban against American immigration lifted, but got only vague promises about tariff relief and failed to win agreement to the separation of Texas from Coahuila.
 * Returning to Texas, Austin was arrested and imprisoned for writing a letter recommending that Texans set up a state government without Mexico City’s consent.
 * Developments in 1834 had threatened their status as “tolerated guests.”
 * General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna made himself dictator of Mexico.
 * Other rumors plus the Santa Anna becoming a dictator aroused the rebels.
 * 1835 - Texans revolted against Mexico’s central government.
 * On June 30, before any additional troops could arrive, a band of settlers led by William B. Travis captured the Mexican garrison at Anahuac without firing a shot.
 * The settlers first engaged Mexican troops at Gonzales in october and forced the retreat of a cavalry
 * Shortly after, Austin laid blockade to San Antonio with a force of 500 men and after six weeks forced its surrender, thereby capturing most of the Mexican troops then in Texas.

Republic of Texas

 * American communities in texas convened and voted to declare their independence on March 2, 1836.
 * A constitution, closed to one that of the US, was adopted for the new Republic of Texas and a temporary government was installed to carry on the military struggle.
 * Even some Texas Mexicans joined the Americans because they too wanted to be free of Santa Anna’s rules.
 * Days after Texas declared itself a republic, rebels and Mexican troops in San Antonio fought the famous battle of the Alamo.
 * Only 187 rebels fought off a far larger number of Mexican soldiers for more than a week before eventually capitulating.
 * Ended with an exchange of slaughters.
 * Few days later, another Texas detachment was surrounded and captured in an open plain near the San Antonio River and was marched to the town of Goliad, where most of its 350 members were executed.
 * Next month, General Sam Houston assaulted Santa Anna’s troops
 * 630 Mexicans and only a handful of Texans had been killed.
 * Santa Anna was captured and marched to Velasco, the meeting place of Texas government.
 * Santa Anna- forced to sign treaties recognizing the independence of Texas and its claim to territory all the way to the Rio Grande.
 * Sam Houston - first president of Texas
 * Panic of 1837 - impelled many debt-ridden and land-hungry farmers to take advantage of the free grants of 1280 acres that Texas offered to immigrating heads of white families.
 * Population only grew.

Trails of Trade and Settlement

 * Relations between the US and Mexico soured after the Revolution.
 * Affected the Santa Fe trade (trail that ran from Missouri to Santa Fe).
 * Caused by Anglo-american aggressions
 * Oregon Trail: great overland route that brought the wagon trains of American migrants to the West Cost during the 1840s
 * Slowly, migration to Oregon began

The Mormon Trek

 * Mormons: important and distinctive group of pioneers that followed the Oregon Trail to establish a colony in the region of the Great Salt Lake.
 * Founded the church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 * Joseph Smith of Palmyra, NY, the founder, revealed that he had received over many years a series of revelations that called upon him to establish Christ’s pure church on earth.
 * Book of Mormon, a new scripture that he claimed to have discovered and translated with the aid of an angel
 * Mormons tried to convert the Native Indians to Mormons.
 * Smith’s death confirmed the growing conviction of the Mormon leadership.
 * Brigham Young, sent a party of 1,500 men to assess the chances of a colony in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake.
 * Young himself settled in Utah- promised land.
 * Utah’s main problem: determination of its political status
 * President Buchanan sent a military force to bring Utah to heel, and the Mormons prepared to repel this “invasion.”
 * Buchanan then just offered an olive branch in the form of a general pardon for Mormons.
 * Young accepted and in return, called off his plan to resist the army by force.

Manifest Destiny and the Mexican-American War

John Tyler & Texas

 * Tyler: originally vice when Harrison died in 1841 after 1 month of presidency
 * Proslavery Virginian, but associated with whigs
 * Wanted to win presidency again in 1844→used the annexation of Texas in 1843
 * Enlisted the support of Calhoun: unity of the south and advantages over the abolitionists of slavery
 * Success/failure: determines if North was willing to give South a fair share of national power
 * Propaganda campaign was launched on British design of Texas
 * British were “preparing to guarantee” Texas independence and make a loan to US for abolition: believed by majority
 * Calhoun replaces secretary of State (Upshur) at the Senate 1844:
 * Calhoun denounces British for trying to get rid of essential labor of the South
 * Supporters: well-being and security of South depends on annexation of Texas
 * Whigs (anti-slavery): annexation pro slavery plot to advance the interest of South against the North
 * Failed to pass Senate, Congress adjourned before issue voted on

The Triumph of Polk and Annexation

 * In 1844 campaign, annexation of Texas became central issue for Tyler, but this failed
 * Tyler was not in line with either party: ran independent and withdrew from race
 * Postponement of Democratic conclave : Van Buren would have won, but: risk war w/ Mexico, sectional strife, destroy unity of Democrats
 * Van Buren agreed with Henry Clay (Whig favorite) opposing annexation
 * BUT this caused discontent with the South
 * James K. Polk of Tennessee became triumphant (protege of Jackson): governor of Tennessee and House of Representatives speaker
 * Expansionist: annexation of Texas & claims to all Oregon
 * US into a continental nation (popular notion everywhere)
 * Won election narrowly
 * Annexation approved by Congress a few days before inauguration

The Doctrine of Manifest Destiny

 * Expansionist mood given a name: Manifest Destiny
 * By John L. O’Sullivan (1845) of Young America Movement: United States Magazine and Democratic Review
 * 3 main ideas of Manifest Destiny:
 * God was supporting American expansionism
 * Free development (the spread of American rule meant expanding freedom)
 * Population growth provided by the territory growth
 * Extreme form: wanted all of North America

Polk and the Oregon Question

 * Conflict w/ Britain more possible (1845-1846)
 * Oregon had been jointly occupied by Britain and the US but Polk wanted to keep popularity with Democratic expanionists
 * Privately: Polk accepted the 49th parallel as division line
 * Polk: bluff and bluster diplomacy (foreign policy):
 * Over-stated arguments, menacing public announcements
 * 1845: Polk asked British for terms of 49th parallel
 * British refused: did not meet demand for Vancouver Islands & free navigation of the Columbia River
 * Polk angry, refused request to renew offer later
 * Polk: Congress terminated agreement for joint occupation & Polk submitted this required notice to the British
 * British tried to avoid war but still dispatched warships
 * Polk simply asked Senate for advice: accepted treaty w/ naviagation to Columbia River temporary for British
 * Alienated expansionist advocated in the Old Northwest
 * America’s first deep-water port in the Pacific
 * Annexation of Texas became acceptable b/c new free states created to counterbalance the slaveholding Texas
 * BUT no prospect of more free states: annexation of Texas being a southern plot for slavery more probable
 * Polk became a president interested in south’s interests to the north

War with Mexico

 * Mexicans had recognized Texan independence in 1845 BUT rejected US claims
 * US annexed Texas and claimed area disputed: Mexico prepared for war
 * US prepared troops in Louisiana
 * John Sidell (emissary placed into Mexico City to solve diplomatically): Mexicans refused b/c ignored that regular diplomatic relations were suspended
 * Polk ordered General Taylor (General of Southwest): encroached on territory claimed by both sides
 * April 24: 1600 Mexicans attacked small US detachment (killed 11 & captured rest)
 * Congress declared war on May 13 (California/New Mexico)
 * Frémont already expedition in California
 * Polk ordered force under Colonel Kearny to take New Mexico from Santa Fe
 * War lasted long: Mexico refused peace despite military defeats
 * Taylor won 2 battles & captured major Northern city
 * Allowed Mexican garrison go & did not go further into Mexico
 * Angered Polk
 * Polk: General Scott prepared land and sea attack on Veracruz
 * Taylor claimed victory over big Mexican army at Buena Vista
 * Kearny set for California, where US settlers and Fremont declared independence
 * Navy captured port of Monteray & US took California against unorganized Mexicans
 * Veracruz campaign: Slow b/c of massive/careful preparations
 * Scott finally landed near crucial port city and laid siege
 * Met Mexican forces and daring flanking maneuver allowed win
 * Massive assault after temporary armistice, Scott captured and won

Settlement of the Mexican-American War

 * Trist accompanied Scott’s army to negotiate a peace treaty when Mexicans wanted
 * Even after victory, Trist had problems w/ treaty with Mexican government
 * Polk ordered Trist to return to Washington
 * Radicals wanted all of Mexico and Polk pondering on annexation of Mexico: Trist ignored and signed treaty
 * Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gave New Mexico, California, Norther part of Rio Grande as Texas for $15 million
 * All Mexican residents became US citizens, Treaty enlarged US by 20% : California, Utah, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, parts of Colorado & Wyoming
 * Approved by Senate
 * South wanted more for transcontinental railroad
 * Gadsden Purchase of southern parts of Arizona and New Mexico
 * New areas did not include Mexico b/c heavily populated by Spanish/Indians
 * Mexicans could never be citizens of US and would have to be ruled as a colony b/c contrary to American ideals and traditions
 * Majority of US was satisfied with treaty
 * US had really wanted California and Pacific coast ports for commerce
 * Division amongst the US
 * Whigs opposed war in principle: US had no valid claims to southern areas
 * Northerners: real purpose of the war was to spread slavery
 * Congress debated Wilmot Proviso: prohibition of slavery in new areas
 * Political dissent & propaganda of Manifest Destiny
 * SHOW limits of mid-19th-century expansionism
 * Limited following efforts of expansionism
 * Ambition for Canada faded w/ lack of enthusiasm for war with Britain
 * Mexican residents became second-class citizens of the US
 * Racism & slavery plagued US

Spirit of Young America ~ The Mormon Trek Manifest Destiny & The Mexican American War